The Effects Of Long Term Meditation Practices On The...

Abstract Substantial research has been done on the positive effects of long-term meditation practices on the promotion of cognitive functions. However, the effects of brief meditation practices have not been as thoroughly researched. Accordingly, this study will further investigate the effects of short-term mindfulness-based training (MT) on the multiple traits of attentional processing. I hypothesize that brief MT can have similar results to that of long-term practices, indicating that meta-cognition can be improved in a short period of time. This experimental study will compare a MT group, a relaxation group, and a control group—all made up of inexperienced participants—on their performance of higher-order processing of attentional tasks. We predict that the MT group will do better than the other groups on all tests administered, and that they will improve significantly compared to their previous performance. Key words: Meditation, Mindfulness, Meta-cognition, Attention Introduction Many recent studies have validated that people who have practiced mindfulness based training and/or meditation express greater cognitive flexibility. Mindfulness is a psychological state characterized by full attention to a present experience without elaboration of thought or emotional reactivity while focusing on the sensations of one’s breath and body and maintaining relaxation. Thus, MT heightens meta-cognitive processing to an extent (Austin, 1998 as found in Zeidan, Johnson,Show MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Stress On Stress Management3217 Words   |  13 Pagessituations, using techniques to eliminate or minimize the stress, and accepting that stress is an everyday human experience can help a person better deal with the effects. This paper explores the causes of stress and methods used to alleviate stress. â€Æ' Stress Management Introduction I have always had a tendency to be a stressful person, for as long as I can remember. It is my nature; I am a worrier, a perfectionist, and a Type A personality. I like to plan ahead and prepare. This is partly a result ofRead MoreStress and Stress Management7440 Words   |  30 Pages1987) along with asthma, diabetes, and multiple sclerosis (Fleming Baum, 1986). One study reported that a company spent $3,400 annually for one employee with anxiety headaches, which included the loss of productivity, doctor visits, and negative effects on coworkers (Manning Curtis, 1988). Psychological disorders are not always readily identifiable, but symptoms include anxiety, depression, job dissatisfaction, maladaptive behavioral patterns, chemical dependencies, and alcohol abuse (Sauter, MurphyRead MoreCommunity Case Study1843 Words   |  8 Pagesonline pre-packaged software, GreekLifeEdu. 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American psychologist Glenn Perry founded the Association for Psychological Astrology in 1987 in order to (1) establish general guidelinesRead MoreThe Problems, Effects, and Solutions to Workplace Stress for Holland’s Automotive Repair2132 Words   |  9 PagesThis proposal examines the problems, effects, and solutions to workplace stress. In addition, I will explain risk assessment, management, and prevention. Finally, I will review coping strategies for workplace stress. Holland’s Automotive Repair has seventy-seven people of a wide diverse nature. Internal research shows many employees are suffering from workplace stress. External research focuses on several studies, models, and theories of workplace stress effects. Workplace stress causes problemsRead More Exploring Different Aspects of Taekwondo Essay3391 Words   |  14 Pagesnon-violence and a strict code of moral conduct. TaeKwonDo: A Sport, A Culture, A Way of Life, I. Whether People Practice Taekwondo For ¡K. II. 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This is not a sample but all the private golf clubs and theRead MorePerceived Stress Levels and Stress Management Among Paramedical Students Lyceum of the Philippines University: Towards Stress Management Enhancement15005 Words   |  61 PagesManagement Among Paramedical Students Lyceum of the Philippines University: Towards Stress Management Enhancement Maribel D. Mayuga-Barrion, DDM, MAT It is recognized that stress is a normally occurring part of life. Selye was the first to describe the term stress as a state produced within an organism subjected to a stimulus perceived as a threat (Selye, 1957). He spoke of stres s as a condition that occurs commonly in response to any adaptive response within the body. He defined stress as . . . aRead MoreHolistic Approach14986 Words   |  60 Pagesthe conditions and diseases they are treating . 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The Conflict Of Religious Exchange Between Europeans And...

Over the past several decades scholars have struggled with the conflict of religious exchange between Europeans and enslaved African Americans. Jon Sensbach tells a remarkable story of Rebecca Protten a Caribbean descent. Born a slave in 1718, Protten had a childhood conversion experience, gained her freedom from bondage, and joined a group of German proselytizers from the Moravian Church. She embarked on a mission spreading black Christianity in the eighteenth century, and preaching to hundreds of the enslaved Africans of St. Thomas, a Danish sugar colony in the West Indies. Protten trying to insert faith into a slave society was challenging but her unique gifts and unending effort was a revolution in the African American Christian Community In Addition to Protten gaining her freedom and becoming an evangelist, in 1736, Protten met German missionary Friedrich Martin, who later became her mentor. Martin was a part of the Moravian church and had arrived to St. Thomas to preach the gospel. Protten occasionally visited Martin and his missionaries when they rented a house in St. Thomas. â€Å"She is modest, honest, and chaste before God, and has served her master and mistress with loyalty with sincerity.†(47) Martin’s quote implies that he believe Protten is an ideal spokesperson for Christ and a priestly woman of God. Protten immediately received the role helping Negro women. However trying to insert faith in African Americans was not easy. According to Sensbach, â€Å"ConvincingShow MoreRelatedObjectives Of European Colonization1189 Words   |  5 PagesWhat were the objectives in European colonization? The start of the European colonization of the Americas is typically dated to 1492. Some of their objectives included early conquests, claims, and colonies, early state-sponsored colonists, economic immigrants, religious immigration. Most American school children learn to recite this little phrase: In 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue. Columbus, in fact, was just one of many explorers sponsored by European monarchs in the 1400s who were allRead MoreColonial American Slavery Essay examples1458 Words   |  6 Pagesof American History. There are hundreds of thousands of documents, debates, and historical studies available today. According to Ms. Goetz, the assistant professor of history at Rice University, who states, in The Southern Journal of History, that in addition to geographic and chronological diversity in the America’s, assessment of experiences of colonial slaves is extremely complex, â€Å"especially in the context of three European colonial powers, vigorous Indian groups, and free and enslaved blacks†(GoetzRead MoreNative Americans And The New World1308 Words   |  6 PagesBeginning in the Sixteenth Century, Europeans sought to escape religious and class persecution by engaging on a journey to the New World. However, they were unaware that this â€Å"New World† was already inhabited by many groups of Native Americans, who had been established on the continent for thousands of years. At first, the two ethnic groups lived in relative peace. The colonists of Jamestown survived due to Powhatan’s tribe teaching them how to cultivate the land. 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Globalization, started from the intercontinental migrationRead More The Control of England in North America and Demise of the Spanish Power in the Atlantic1490 Words   |  6 Pagesdiscovery of these developments changed the diets of both the western and eastern regions, assisted in initiating the Atlantic slave trade, and spread illnesses that had a destructive effect on populations in India, and resulted in the creation of European colonies across the Western region (Cohen and Rosenzwei 124). This paper is focused on establishing the main events that made England to gain control over the Atlantic and establishing settlements in North America. The paper also explores the majorRead MoreImpact Of The Columbian Exchange On The New World Essay1570 Words   |  7 Pages1. Define mercantilism. - A political and economic policy adapted by most European monarchs. A mercantile system exist when the government controlled all economic activities to strengthen national power. 2. 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These meetings were called the Covenant Chain. At Lancaster, British colonists forced the Iroquois to agree to land agreements, and they also forced the Iroquois to assist them in a war against the French, to which the Iroquois, like Onondaga orator Canassatego, were forced to say yes. Similar to the French and Spanish colonies, the British allied with Native Americans to gain power in North America. Meanwhile, many Native American groups groupedRead MoreEssay on Slavery and War2748 Words   |  11 PagesMidterm 1. What fundamental factors drew the Europeans to the exploration, conquest, and colonization of the New World? There were many fundamental factors that drew the Europeans to the exploration, conquest, and colonization of the World such as natural resources, overpopulation and religion. The European explorations have been hearing a lot about all the natural resources that the New World can offer to them. They wanted to travel and find the Far East for the gold, silk, spices, and possibleRead MoreThe Human Web: Class Notes3179 Words   |  13 PagesThis process is known as â€Å"globalization† ïÆ'Ëœ As globalization continued, the process of specialization of labor became global The World’s Webs as of 1450 ïÆ'Ëœ The web was created by migration, trade, missionary work, technology transfer, biological exchange, and military conquest o Encompassed Russia up to Siberia, Korea Japan, England, Northern Eastern Africa (but not far from the coast). ïÆ'Ëœ There were two main trunk lines for trade: o The Silk Road: from N. China to the Mediterranean and Black

Education System in England free essay sample

The pre-school sector includes a patchwork quilt of places provided by state, voluntary and private nurseries, childminders and playgroups available to children between the ages of two and five. At the end of 2000 there were 937,000 pre-school places available 264,000 in day nurseries, 353,000 in playgroups and other settings and 320,000 with childminders. The government has promised to improve the quality of education available for this age group and to increase the quantity of available places. All four year olds are now promised a part-time place of five morning or fternoon sessions per week, and the government has set a target of providing a place for two thirds of three year olds by 2002. Downside The push to make more pre-school places available has prompted many primary schools to open nursery classes, offering parents a free place in classes that often become feeder classes to the first formal year of school. While this has benefited the budgets of primary schools, there have been claims that this has forced thousands of playgroups to close. Between 2000 and 2001 provisional official statistics show there were 300 more day nurseries a rise of 3%. These accounted for 0,900 more places (8% more). Playgroups declined by the same number, 300 or 2% of the total a loss of 22,900 places (6%). And there were 3,300 (4%) fewer childminders, who had provided places for 15,800 children (a 5% fall). Five hundred more out-of-school clubs (11%) are reported. Overall, more places are being created than are lost. Early learning goals The governments efforts to raise levels of education in the pre-school sector have met with a mixed reception. The publication of the level of skills that should be achieved brought criticisms that this was putting unnecessary pressure on the very oung. It contributed to a debate over whether children benefited from an early start to learning or whether there were greater advantages to not beginning formal lessons until children were older, as happens in some other countries. The move to upgrade educational standards is part of the trend towards greater regulation in the pre-school sector. There have also been calls for improved training for those working with pre-school children, tighter checks on the suitability of staff and Ofsted inspections of playgroups. But this will still have to contend with the great diversity of re-school provision and many informal arrangements based around the needs of working parents as much as the educational needs of children. Primary schools provide all children with a school place no later than the start of the term after their fifth birthday. The precise age at which schools take children varies from one area to another, but it is common for children to go to school at the start of the term in which they will become five. A growing trend is for schools to admit new pupils at Just one point in the year, which often sees them take children who will be five within the oming school year September to August; under this system, summer-born children start school in the autumn, not long after their fourth birthdays. Structure Primary schools consist mainly of infant schools for children aged five to seven, Junior schools for those aged seven to 1 1, and combined Junior and infant schools for both age groups. First schools in some parts of England cater for ages five to 10 as the first stage of a three-tier system: First, middle and secondary. Middle schools cover different age ranges between eight and 14 and usually lead on to comprehensive upper schools. Class sizes The government says research evidence suggests that smaller infant classes enable teachers to spend more time identifying each childs individual needs and difficulties, and offering the help they need to master the basics. IAverage infant class sizes, 2001 | Near 1: 26. 1 Near 2: 25. Near 3: 27. 8 The average class sizes of five, six and seven year olds suggest that the government is on target to fulfil its promise of classes of 30 or below. But some parents have complained that reducing class sizes has worsened the problem of trying to get places for their children in popular, over-subscribed schools. Test targets The government has also set targets for levels of literary and numeracy, on the grounds that a child who does n ot learn to read well and handle numbers early on runs the risk of falling further behind in all subjects. So, in England, by 2002: On average 80% of 1 1 year olds should be reaching the standard expected for their age in English and 75% in maths. In 2000, the equivalent fgures were 75% (English) and 72% (maths). There are also wide variations between local education authorities across England. Since September 1998, all primary schools in England have been trongly recommended it is not mandatory to devote at least an hour each day to literacy, with a similar daily numeracy session from September 1999. Secondary schools In England, children must continue in full-time education until they are 16 though now a majority stay on after that. The modernisation of the comprehensive system has been one of the key themes of the governments campaign to raise standards in education. In state-sector secondary schools there has been increasing diversification, with the emergence of beacon schools, specialist schools and the etting up of action zones in areas of educational underachievement. ISecondary schools in England I pupils 187% pupils attend comprehensive I I schools | 1,000 specialist schools by 2004 | 1788 independent schools I A-level reforms introduced I I September 2000 I Revised curriculum introduced I I from September 2000 By February 2001 there were 536 specialist schools in England out of a total of 3,500 schools offering advanced teaching in languages, technology, sports and arts with a further 72 given the go-ahead. To qualify, they must raise E50,OOO in sponsorship, repare four-year plans with targets in teaching and learning in the specialist subject area, and involve other schools and the wider community. New specialisms added to the initiative in 2001 were business and enterprise, science, and engineering. The government intends that almost half of all secondary schools should specialise by 2006. There has been particular attention paid to under- performing schools, with groups of primary and secondary schools being brought together with business and community partners in education action zones. These are given extra funding and support to pioneer ways of making improvements. Schools which are seen to be beyond recovery have been closed and given a fresh start, in which a new institution is opened on the site of the failing school usually with a new name, headteacher and staff. The new emphasis is on raising standards for 11 to 14 year olds, with the literacy and numeracy strategies that have been used in primary schools being extended to the lower secondary years. The governments targets are that, by 2004, 75% of 14 year olds will be expected to reach Level 5 the level expected for their age in English, maths, and information and communication technology (CT). The figure for science is 70%. By 2007, ministers want to see 85% of pupils achieving Level 5 in English, maths and CT, and 80% in science. Selection A large majority of the three million secondary school pupils in England attend non- selective comprehensives, but there are a number of ongoing disputes concerning selection. There are 164 grammar schools in England, taking pupils who have passed an 11-plus exam. But in response to calls for the abolition of these remaining grammars, the government introduced regulations for local ballots of parents that will determine whether schools remain selective. So far there has been only one ballot, early in 2000 when parents in Ripon voted to keep their grammar school. A ballot can be triggered only when there are enough names of parents gathered in a petition, with the threshold number calculated by a complicated (and disputed) formula laid down by the government. Schools that have partial selection where a proportion of pupils are admitted on the grounds of ability have also been the subject of disputes. These are settled by the school admissions watchdog the Office of the Schools Adjudicator which itself has been the subject of legal challenges. New categories September 1999. In a reform that removed the opted-out grant-maintained sector, the government introduced four new categories of school. Community schools the largest category of mainstream comprehensives, largely under the control of the local education authority. Foundation schools exercising a greater degree of independence, the governing body is the employer and sets admissions policies. Voluntary-aided schools such as church schools, in which the governing body sets admissions policies and in which the charitable foundation which owns the school makes a financial contribution to its running. Voluntary-controlled schools these are owned by charitable foundations, but the local authority employs staff and sets admissions policies. In 2000 the government came up with another scheme to revive flagging schools: City academies. They are being established with substantial capital investment from business or voluntary, religious or private foundations. The state pays the running costs. They have the right to operate their own curriculum, and freedom to reinvent the school day and pay their teachers more. The government said they would be distinguishable from the Conservatives 1 5 city echnology colleges though created under the same legislation by a wider range of sponsors. Private In addition to state schools, there are around 790 fee-paying independent secondary schools, which are not required to follow the national curriculum, but which must register with the Department for Education and which are subject to inspections for the purposes of registration. Pupils in state and independent schools are required to stay at school until the age of 16 with the starting age of secondary school usually at the age of 1 1 . Where local authorities operate a middle school system, pupils begin econdary school at the age of 12 or 13. Special needs Children deemed to have special educational needs may be most obviously those with a condition that hinders or prevents them from making use of the facilities provided for pupils of their age. But in the broadest sense it covers all those whom the school considers could benefit from extra help with their studies. The great majority are educated in mainstream primary and secondary schools, which are required to publish their policies on pupils with special needs. A government code of practice offers practical guidance to all local education authorities and state schools n England on how to identify, assess and monitor these pupils. Statements An estimated one in five children has some form of special educational need, ranging from mild dyslexia to behavioural problems to complex medical conditions. In most cases this is dealt with in schools through an individual action plan. But some need more support than their school can provide. For these children, the local authority draws up a statement of special educational needs, which in most cases provides extra help of some kind in the school. Just over 3% of children in England and Wales have a statement. Provision varies between authorities. Parents have a right to appeal to a Special Educational Needs Tribunal if they disagree with the statement. The Special Educational Needs and Disability Act 2001, which applies to England and behavioural problems to be taught in mainstream classes. It was backed by the promise of money to improve access in schools and colleges. The new law makes it illegal to treat disabled pupils less favourably than other pupils and requires schools to make reasonable adjustments so that disabled pupils are not put at a substantial disadvantage. Inclusion policy The government has made it clear that it wishes to see more special needs children entering mainstream schools. As a result, special schools for children with moderate difficulties are being closed in many areas. In 2000, 60% of pupils with statements were in maintained mainstream schools, 35% were in special schools and 5% were in independent schools. There are about 2,000 special schools (both day and boarding) for pupils with special educational needs. Some of these are run by voluntary organisations and some are in hospitals. The pupil-teacher ratio in special schools is 6. 5 : 1 compared to 18. : 1 in mainstream state schools and 9. 9 : 1 in independent schools. Some independent schools provide education wholly or mainly for children with special educational needs, and are required to meet similar standards to those for maintained special schools. It is intended that pupils should have access to as much of the national curriculum as possible. Religious schools At first, education was largely conducted by the religious establishment. The cornerstone of the modern system was laid by the Elementary Education Act of 1870, which enshrined the principle that the system of elementary schools should be the esponsibility of the state. The 1944 Education Act continued this work, although Church of England and other religious schools have remained in operation. The 1944 Act required every state-aided primary and secondary school to begin the day with collective worship on the part of all pupils, and with religious instruction in every such school. Religious instruction continues to be given in both fully maintained and state-aided voluntary schools, and opportunities exist for religious training beyond the daily worship and minimum required instruction. In many schools, the religious ffering has become non-denominational, and in areas of high non-Christian immigration, consideration may be given to alternative religious provision. For example, in the summer term of 1998, Islamia primary school in Brent became the first Muslim school to Join the state sector. The government has decided that proposals from independent promoters to set up schools in the maintained sector will be considered on a number of grounds, including: provision ofa good standard of education delivery of the national curriculum the appointment of qualified staff equal opportunities for girls and boys Ђ competent management and viable finance suitable buildings for the school the extent of parental demand and the need for new places in an area cost implications. Methodist, Jewish, Muslim and Sikh. The government has said it is happy to see more single faith secondary schools. The Church of England is hoping to create 100. Independent schools Fee-charging schools are sometimes described as private schools or traditionally in England (somewhat confusingly) public schools. Independent schools receive no grants from public funds and are owned and managed under special trusts. Most ndependent schools offer a similar range of courses to state schools and enter pupils for the same public examinations. The independent sector is not obliged to teach the National Curriculum and comply with the associated education targets. Independent primary schools fall into two main categories: pre-preparatory, for ages two to seven, and Junior or preparatory (prep) schools, for ages seven to 11 or 13. The preparatory title is used because the last two years in the school are often devoted to preparation for the Common Entrance examination; a pass is required for admittance to many independent secondary schools. Fee-charging schools come in a variety of forms. Some are privately owned and run for profit, others are charitable foundations. The Independent Schools Information Service offers a guide giving the name and addresses of schools, as well as entry requirements. According to ISS, the average class size for preparatory schools is 15 to 20 pupils per teacher. Fees range from about E600 to El , 100 per term for ages two to seven and E950 to E2,500 for day pupils aged seven to 13 E2,300 to E3,500 per term for boarders. Secondary schools The majority of independent secondary schools have classes or teaching groups of etween 20 and 25 pupils, even lower at sixth form level. They admit pupils at any age from 1 1 . Many will require them to take an examination. Sometimes the school sets its own examination, but many use the Common Entrance Examination, which can be taken for entry to the school at 11, 12 or 13. The exam is set centrally and marked individually by the senior school. Each school has its own pass mark. All independent schools in the UK are open to inspection by approved inspectors and must register with the appropriate government education department. The education departments lay down certain minimum standards and can make schools emedy any unacceptable features of their building or instruction, as well as excluding any unsuitable teacher or proprietor. Fees at independent schools vary widely. They depend on whether schools are educating older children or younger ones, day or boarding and, sometimes, on the part of the country in which they are situated. The figures below are the latest figures for 1997-98. They are broad ranges: some schools will be lower or higher. In 1998 they will increase, possibly by about 5 per cent. The approximate range of fees per term is from El ,300 to E2,700 for girls ay schools, E2,700 to E4,400 for boarding girls; El ,300 to E3,200 for day boys and E2,800 to E4,600 for boarders. More than five children out of six at independent schools are day pupils. They often come from a wider catchment area than those at state schools, and sometimes the children live 15 or 20 miles away from their school. In 1997 boarders accounted for 6. 5% of the 223,000 girls in independent schools and years. In 1982, 27. 7% of pupils were boarders. With boarding education, parents can choose from a wider range of schools and save the trouble and expense of daily ravel, but boarding will not suit every child. Assisted places From 1981 until 1997, many independent schools in England and some in Wales offered places to children whose parents could not afford the full fees through the government-funded Assisted Places Scheme. The last pupils to benefit from these assisted places entered schools in September 1997, as the Labour government elected in May 1997 is committed to phasing out the scheme. Some schools are attempting to compensate for the loss of the scheme by increasing the number of scholarships awarded from their own resources, although these rarely cover the full ees. Scholarships are awarded as a result of a competitive examination, usually for academic, musical, artistic or all-round merit. Curriculum and testing A national curriculum is compulsory in all state schools in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and for virtually every pupil up to the age of 16. It is devised by the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) and its partner authorities, the Qualifications, Curriculum and Assessment Authority for Wales (Awdurdod Cymwysterau, Cwricwlwm ac Asesu Cymru ACCAC) and the Northern Ireland Council for Curriculum, Examinations and Assessment (CCEA). Although it was introduced in primary and secondary schools between autumn 1989 and autumn 1996, it is an idea that has been common in other European countries for decades. The main aim of the national curriculum is to raise standards, making sure all children have a broad and balanced education up to the age of 16. In the past, many pupils dropped key subjects such as modern languages or science at 13 or 14. A second aim is to ensure that schools in all parts of the country are following the same courses. This has particular advantages for children who change schools when families move house rom one area to another. The national curriculum specifies what children must study and what they are expected to know at different ages. This ties in with the national tests that check whether children are meeting these targets. What a child must study The core subjects of the national curriculum, which are compulsory for five- to 16- year-olds, are English, maths and science. These get priority. The second level of the curriculum is the so-called foundation subjects, which are design and technology, information and communication technology (ICT), history, geography, music, art, hysical education (PE) and, for secondary school pupils, a modern foreign language and, from 2002, citizenship. There has been an increased emphasis on ICT in recent years, to the point where it now has to be used in all subjects as well as being taught in its own right. By law, religious education is also required for all pupils and all secondary schools must provide sex education. Parents have a right to withdraw their children from these subjects. In Welsh-medium schools in Wales, Welsh is also a core subject. Nearly all primary schools in Wales teach Welsh as a first or second language nd about a quarter use Welsh as the sole or main medium of instruction. In secondary schools, Welsh is a compulsory subject for almost all 11 to 16-year-old pupils. The national curriculum is divided into four key stages, which broadly relate from 14 to 16. Changes The curriculum began changing again from the year 2000. The biggest change adding citizenship as a foundation subject in secondary schools happened in September 2002. The governments latest proposals for secondary schools would mean the compulsory subjects for 14 to 16 year olds would be mathematics, English, cience and information and communication technology, alongside citizenship, religious education, careers education, sex education, physical education and work- related learning. This would drop design and technology and a modern foreign language. pic] The curriculum at different stages: core subjects highlighted Testing Four and five-year-old children starting school are now tested on their reading, writing and use of number. This baseline assessment is designed to provide more information for teachers, as well as allowing the measurement of pupils progress as they move through the school. All children in state schools are tested in English and mathematics at the ages of seven, 11, and 14, and pupils aged 11 and 14 are also tested in science. The tests often known as SATs are intended to show whether children have reached the national curriculum learning targets. They are usually taken in May each year. All children in state schools in Northern Ireland are tested formally in this way only at the age of 14 in English, maths and science. At Key Stage 4, the national curriculum gives schools the opportunity to offer pupils aged 14 to 16 a wider choice of subjects, for example craft or drama. There are a range of GCSE and vocational courses to cater for these areas. Before they leave school, most 15 and 16 year olds also take General Certificates of Secondary Education (GCSEs) or similar qualifications. GCSEs This is the major qualification taken by pupils at the end of compulsory education at the age of 16, as a series of exams in the individual subjects they have been studying. The papers are set by the Assessment and Qualifications Alliance (formed by the Associated Examining Board, City Guilds, Southern Examining Group and the Northern Examinations and Assessment Board), OCR (formed by University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate and RSA Examinations Board), and the Edexcel foundation. They appoint examiners who mark the papers outside the schools. Results are graded A* (the highest), A, B, C, D, E, F and G, with U unclassified for those who do not meet the minimum standard. Some subjects are tiered to cater for different ability ranges. For example, those expected by a school to do best will be entered for papers covering grades A* to D; others will do papers in which the maximum possible grade would be a C. There are three tiers for maths. New GCSE short course qualifications were introduced from September 1996. These take half the time typically allotted to a full GCSE course, and are available in modern foreign languages, physical education, religious education, geography, history, design and technology, and information technology. They are popular with pupils wanting another qualification and who want the flexibility of a less intensive course, which can be studied alongside full GCSEs. GNVQs The Part One General National Vocational Qualification (GNVQ) is broadly equivalent to two GCSE courses. Initially, it covered three subject areas: business, anufacturing, and health and social care. New GNVQs introduced in 1996 were art and design, information technology, and leisure and tourism, while engineering was introduced in September 1997. New, vocational GCSEs being introduced in secondary schools from 2002 will replace GNVQs. They will mean that 14 to 16 year olds can opt to pursue work-related skills, studying part time in workplaces. Both GCSEs and GNVQs can be taken at broadly equivalent foundation and intermediate levels. National traineeships which lead on to modern apprenticeships are being replaced with new foundation apprenticeships. These will offer an alternative for those who lack the academic ability to tackle vocational GCSEs, and will be a way on to new, advanced apprenticeships. All this is being debated once more as part of a government drive to get people to think in terms of a 14-19 curriculum, with GCSEs as a mid-point assessment rather than a leaving exam, now that almost all youngsters continue in some form of education or training. Independent schools Independent schools do not have to teach the national curriculum, although many are already following all or most of it. They say it reflects the broad and balanced urriculum they have always advocated. Funding and management Local education authorities (LEAS) in England are responsible for most of the public expenditure on schools. A large amount is indirectly funded by the government through the Revenue Support Grant made to local authorities. The government has put enormous political pressure on LEAs to delegate an increasing amount of the money it intends should be spent on education to schools, to spend as they wish. There are also central government grants supporting spending by local education authorities. These focus mainly on training to improve schools performance in iteracy and numeracy, and on support for information technology. Extra resources also go to inner city schools facing particularly severe problems. The government has set up education action zones in England. These are local clusters of schools, usually a mix of primary, secondary and special schools in areas of relative deprivation, which work in a new partnership with the local education authority, parents, businesses and others. There are 73 zones, each of which receives E500,OOO per year for three years. State school funding There used to be four kinds of state school wholly or mainly supported from public unds: County schools, owned and wholly funded by local education authorities and providing primary and secondary non-denominational education. Voluntary schools, mostly established by religious denominations but financially maintained by the local education authority. Those which assumed greater financial independence and more control over admissions policies were known as Voluntary aided, as opposed to voluntary controlled schools, where the local education authority bore pay between one-half and three-quarters of the cost of building a new voluntary chool or extending an existing one, almost always a secondary school. self- governing grant-maintained (6M) schools, which had opted out of local authority control. Under the former Conservative government, all secondary and primary schools were eligible to apply for grant-maintained status, subject to a ballot of parents. These GM schools enjoyed a greater degree of independence over their admission policies. They were not financed by local education authorities but by a central funding agency. Changes Under the Schools Standards and Framework Act 1998, the government established three new categories of schools: Ђ community, very broadly based on county schools voluntary, formerly voluntary aided and voluntary controlled schools foundation, intended to replace GM schools, putting them back under local authority control to an extent. Local education authorities continue to retain responsibility for various services, including transport, school meals, and co-ordinating services for pupils with special needs. Governing bodies All publicly-maintained schools have a governing body, which is usually made up of a number of parent representatives, the head teacher and serving teachers, governors ppointed by the local education authority or church authorities, as appropriate, and others to represent the local community. Governors are responsible for the main policy decisions within schools, including academic matters. They also shoulder responsibility for school discipline, and the appointment and dismissal of staff although in practice much of this responsiblity is delegated to the head teacher. Governing bodies are responsible for implementing the recommendations of inspection reports, and are required to make those reports and their resulting action plans available to parents. Inspections The independent Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted) is a non-ministerial government department headed by Her Majestys chief inspector of schools. Ofsteds job is regularly to inspect all maintained schools and report on standards of achievement. All state schools are inspected by teams of independent inspectors on contract to Ofsted. They report on good practice in schools and other educational issues based on inspection evidence. A new inspection regime introduced in 1997 will see schools inspected once every six years, or more frequently if there is cause. A summary of the inspection report must be sent to the parents of each pupil by the school, followed by a copy of the governors plan on how they are going to act on the reports recommendations. Full reports are available on Ofsteds Website. Failing If school inspectors decide that a school is failing to give its pupils an acceptable standard of education, the local education authority can appoint new governors and withdraw delegated management from the school. As an alternative, central government can put the school under new management until its performance